The imperialistic expansion of the Assyrians and, later, the Babylonians in the first millennium introduced the Babylonian calendar throughout Syria. Before this time, a number of local Bronze-age calendars existed. Below the fold is a brief survey of some of these.
A. Hurrian Calendars
As with the Canaanite calendar, the Hurrian calendar may have either followed the Mesopotamian or the Egyptian model. Evidence is too meager to reach a conclusion. In Alalakh and Nuzi, the year probably began in the fall (Attana/Attanašwe), as in the Canaanite calendar.
The Mitanni rulers of Hanigalbat/Washshukani were apparently of Indo-Aryan origin, as indicated by their personal names and the gods they worshiped, although they no longer spoke an Indo-Aryan language. It is therefore remotely possible that they observed a solar calendar comparable to the earliest Vedic system, with years of 360 days and an intercalary month added every sixth year. (This system is also analogous to the Old Assyrian commercial calendar.)
| Nuzi | Mitanni | Alalakh | ||
| Oct | Attanašwe, Sabûtu | Šabātu | Attana, Attanatu | |
| Nov | Šeḫli | Šeḫalu | ? | |
| Dec | Kinūnu | Kinanu | ? | |
| Jan | Ḫuri | Ḫuru | Pagru | |
| Feb | Mitirunni | Mitirunnu | ? | |
| Mar | Ḫutalši | Ḫutalše | Ḫiyaru | |
| Apr | Impurtanni | Impurtannu | ? | |
| May | Arkuzzi, Ḫiaru | Ḫiaru | ? | |
| Jun | Kurilli, Ḫinzuru | Ikkuratu | ? | |
| Jul | Šeḫali ša dTešup, Tammūzu | Ḫinzuri | Kiraru | |
| Aug | Šeḫali ša dNergal | Ulūlu | ? | |
| Sep | Arkabinni, Ulūlu | Arkapinnu | ? | |
Disclaimer: Mitanni month-names come from an Internet source that does not cite sources. I include them provisionally in hopes that someone can point me to better documented information.
The month of Pagru at Alalakh corresponds to Canaanite [PG]RM and Ugaritic Pagrūma. Kiraru is a Hurrian loanword (cf. Canaanite KRR). Alalakh also has months named Palae/Palai and Ḫutizzi, both of uncertain placement.
B. Semitic Calendars
The New Year probably began in the fall in Ebla (Hunger, 299). I tentatively suggest that the calendars of Chagar Bazar and Mari also had a fall New Year. In Emar, the year most likely begins with Isi (spring reckoning), although some propose it began with Zarati (fall reckoning; Fleming, 164 n. 107).
| Ebla | Chagar Bazar | Mari | Emar | |
| Apr | È | ? | Uraḫum | Isi |
| May | Kur6 | Ayarum | Malkānum | ? |
| Jun | dA-dam-ma-um | Abum | Laḫḫum | Za’atim |
| Jul | Še-gur10-ku5 | Dumuzi | Abum | ? |
| Aug | dAMA-ra | Niqmum | Ḫibirtum | ? |
| Sep | dKà-mi-iš | Kinūnum | dIGI.KUR | ? |
| Oct | Be-li | Tamḫīrum | Kinūnum | Zarati, SAG.MU |
| Nov | dAš-tá-gibil | Nabrium | dDagan | dNIN.KUR.RA |
| Dec | NI.DU | Mamītum | Liliyatum | dAn-na |
| Jan | dÉ-da, A-nun-nun, Ì-nun-nun |
? | dBēlet-bīri | dA-dama, dA-dam-ma(-um) |
| Feb | Er-me, NI-la-mu | ? | Kiskissum | Mar-za-ḫa-ni, Abî |
| Mar | Ḫu-lu-mu, Ḫur-mu, Izi-gar | Addarum | Ebūrum | dḪal-ma, Ḫiyar |
The order of the Chagar Bazar months is conjecture based on comparison with the Eshnunna and Babylonian calendars. The remaining months are called Mana, Magrānum, and Tīrum; their position is uncertain.
In Hellenistic times, a “Syro-Macedonian” calendar was instituted combining the features of the Greek and Babylonian systems. This calendar is described later in the discussion of Greek calendars.
Resources
- K. D. Abhyankar, “A Search for the Earliest Vedic Calendar,” Indian Journal of History of Science 28/1 (1993) 1–14.
- I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, and N. G. L. Hammond, The Cambridge Ancient History: Early History of the Middle East (Cambridge University Press, 1971).
- Daniel E. Fleming, Time at Emar (Eisenbrauns, 2000).
- Hermann Hunger, “Kalender,” Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, ed. Erich Ebeling and Bruno Meissner (Walter de Gruyter, 1980) 299–303.
- Nick Wyatt, Space and Time in the Religious Life of the Near East (Sheffield, 2001).
